Food Selectivity

Children who develop an unhealthy relationship with eating often experience short and long-term implications (Gale, Eikeseth, & Rudrud, 2010). Generally, children progress through a predictable sequence of feeding skills (Vaz, Volkert, & Piazza, 2011); however, children who are selective or picky eaters will only consume certain foods and no other variations (Ahearn, 2003). Feeding difficulties, such as food selectivity, are common among children with developmental disabilities (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2014, p. 317), and are estimated to develop in about one third of this population (Palmer, Thompson, & Linscheid, 1975). Bandini and colleagues (2010) noted that a standardised definition of food selectivity was absent in current literature. Consequently, they operationalised food selectivity to include three components: 1) food refusal; 2) limited food repertoire; and 3) high frequency single food intake (Bandini et al., 2010, p. 2).

Food selectivity is often exhibited by children with developmental disabilities and can be a major concern for caregivers (Bandini et al., 2010). Positively, research shows much promise in ameliorating parental concerns as well as improving the lives of those who exhibit such eating disorders. In children with ASDs, the literature suggests that food selectivity can be successfully treated with a multitude of intervention strategies such as: stimulus fading (Koegel et al., 2012), taste exposure and behavioural skills training (Seiverling et al., 2012), antecedent manipulations (Najdowski et al., 2012), differential reinforcement and non-contingent reinforcement (Allison et al., 2012), high-p request sequences (Penrod et al., 2012), modeling (Fu et al., 2015), and escape extinction (Allison et al., 2012; Fu et al., 2015). Escape extinction is not always a necessary supplement for positive outcomes (Najdowski et al., 2012; Penrod et al., 2012). Moreover, caution should be advised if utilising an escape extinction procedure as it can lead to extinction bursts (Najdowski et al., 2012) and aggression (Allison et al., 2012).

Food selectivity covers a wide range of problematic eating behaviours (Bandini et al., 2010). Therefore, the intervention strategies above could possibly be applied to client’s presenting with many topographies of feeding disorders. Considering that maladaptive feeding behaviours may be the product of environmental factors (Penrod et al., 2012), observing others (Bandura, 1965; Fu et al., 2015), or even sensory functions (Koegel et al., 2012), challenges lie in selecting interventions that best match the individual’s learning history. Despite these interventions showing promise for treating food selectivity, the literature is relatively recent and the subjects relatively young. Longitudinal follow-ups on such clients may ultimately be the illuminating factor on the efficacy of the current plethora of interventions available.

Selected readings:

Ahearn, W. H. (2003). Using simultaneous presentation to increase vegetable consumption in a mildly selective child with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36(3), 361–365.

Allison, J., Wilder, D. A., Chong, I., Lugo, A., Pike, J. & Rudy, N. (2012). A comparison of differential reinforcement and noncontingent reinforcement to treat food selectivity in a child with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 45(3), 613-617.

Bandini, L. G., Anderson, S. E., Curtin C., Cermak, S., Evans, E. W., Scampini, R., Maslin, M., & Must, A. (2010). Food selectivity in children with autism spectrum disorders and typically developing children. The Journal of Pediatrics, 157(2), 259-264.

Bandura, A. (1965). Influence of models’ reinforcement contingencies on the acquisition of imitative responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 589-595.

Cooper, J., Heron, T., & Heward, W. (2014). Applied Behavior Analysis (Pearson New International Edition, 2nd Ed.) UK: Pearson Education.

Fu, S. B., Penrod, B., Fernand, J. K., Whelan, C. M., Griffith, K., & Medved, S. (2015). The Effects of Modeling Contingencies in the Treatment of Food Selectivity in Children With Autism. Behavior Modification, 39(6), 771-784.

Gale, C. M., Eikeseth, S., & Rudrud, E. (2011). Functional assessment and behavioural intervention for eating difficulties in children with autism: a study conducted in the natural environment using parents and ABA tutors as therapists. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(10), 1383-96.

Koegel, R. L., Bharoocha, A. A., Ribnick, C. B., Ribnick, R. C., Bucio, M. O., Fredeen, R. M., & Koegel, L. K. (2012). Using individualized reinforcers and hierarchical exposure to increase food flexibility in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(8), 1574-1581.

Najdowski, A. C., Tarbox, J., & Wilke, A. E. (2012). Utilizing antecedent manipulations and reinforcement in the treatment of food selectivity by texture. Education and Treatment of Children, 35(1), 101-110.

Palmer, S., Thompson, R. J., & Linscheid, T. R. (1975). Applied Behavior Analysis in the Treatment of Childhood Feeding Problems. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 17(3), 333.

Penrod, B., Gardella, L., Fernand, J. (2012). An evaluation of a progressive high-probability instructional sequence combined with low probability demand fading in the treatment of food selectivity. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 45(3), 527-537.

Seiverling, L. Williams, K., Sturmey, P., & Hart, S. (2012). Effects of behavioral skills training on parental treatment of children’s food selectivity. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 45(1), 197-203.

Vaz, P. C. M., Volkert, V. M., & Piazza, C. C. (2011). Using negative reinforcement to increase self-feeding in a child with food selectivity. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(4), 915– 920.

Schedules of Reinforcement

1. Fixed ratio.
Buy 4 coffees, get your fifth one free.
In operant conditioning, a fixed-ratio schedule is a schedule of reinforcement where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.

> See earlier post on the Goal Gradient Effect




2. Variable ratio.
Fishing
In operant conditioning, a variable-ratio schedule is a schedule of reinforcement where a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a steady, high rate of responding.

 













3. Fixed interval.
Footballer signs contract whereby his salary increases are renegotiated every three years.
In operant conditioning, a fixed-interval schedule is a schedule of reinforcement where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed.

4. Variable interval.
Waiting for a taxi.
In operant conditioning, a variable-interval schedule is a schedule of reinforcement where a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed.

SIMPLES

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Properly used, positive reinforcement is extremely powerful ~ B. F. Skinner

G.E.T. A. C.A.B

A great infographic outlining the 7 dimensions of Applied Behaviour Analysis. Applied behaviour analysis (ABA) is "the science in which tactics derived from the principles of behaviour are applied systematically to improve socially significant behaviour and experimentation is used to identify the variables responsible for behaviour change" (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 20). The beginning of ABA can be traced back to 1968, when Donald Baer, Montrose Wolf, and Todd Risley from University of Kansas published the seminal paper, "Some Current Dimension of Applied Behaviour Analysis." These founding fathers outlined 7 characteristics of ABA that have defined the field (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968).

(The designing authors are listed at the bottom of the image).

 

Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1(1), 91–97.



Applied Behaviour Analysis

Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA) is an effective behavioural treatment programme widely used with children with autism to improve socially significant behaviours.

 

ABA makes meaningful changes in people's lives through the use of procedures that have been demonstrated to work. The goal of an ABA teaching environment is to build socially significant behaviours in a meaningful way and to a meaningful degree. Generalisation, spontaneity and fun are essential components of successful intervention.

  

A few years ago, Ireland was in the fortunate position of having 12 ABA schools that had been set up and staffed in a way that made possible comprehensive programmes for children with autism (Leslie, 2013). However, the changes implemented from 2010 mean this is far from being the case now. Members of the Division of Behaviour Analysis are either in or in close touch with these schools. They are now termed special schools and, because of the rules they operate under none of them can meet the specifications for an ABA school.

ABA aspires to help with serious behavioural problems. A serious behavioural problem is one that impairs the quality of life of the person to a significant degree, impacts negatively on the lives of others, is persistent (thus rarely goes away of its own accord), and is not readily removed by some simple or brief treatment or intervention.

Some of the problems of many children with autism meet these criteria. If help is not provided or not adequate, their behavioural problems may leave them trailing far behind their peers of the same age in personal, social and educational development.

 

For more information see the following links:

 

AutismIreland.ie

RainChild.ie

AbaSupport.ie

ABA Schools in Ireland & UK

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''If they can't learn the way we teach, we teach the way they learn''  ~   O. Ivar Lovaas

Establishing Operations

The application of behavioural theory is regularly used in consumer settings such as bars and restaurants.

 

For example, publicans cannot control the behaviour of their customer’s drinking rate, however they can introduce items like free salty snacks to make drinking alcohol more reinforcing (Vargas, 2009).

 

An establishing operation is a procedure that increases the effectiveness of an objects reinforcement, and the most commonly used establishing operation in behavioural science is a deprivation of primary reinforcement (Pierce & Cheney, 2013).

 

Although bar owners cannot force the consumer to drink more, they make use of value-altering establishing operations (the salty foods) to make drinking liquids more reinforcing.

So drink up you lab rats...there's no manipulation to see here!  

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Well now, I was in a bar in Dublin, and it had one of those coasters. And it said, "Drink Canada Dry," so I thought I'd give it a shot. ~ Brendan Behan; on why he visited Canada.